{"id":141974,"date":"2013-06-26T13:00:28","date_gmt":"2013-06-26T17:00:28","guid":{"rendered":"\/gazette\/?p=141974"},"modified":"2019-07-10T17:45:32","modified_gmt":"2019-07-10T21:45:32","slug":"right-down-the-middle-explained","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2013\/06\/right-down-the-middle-explained\/","title":{"rendered":"Right down the middle, explained"},"content":{"rendered":"<header\n\tclass=\"wp-block-harvard-gazette-article-header alignfull article-header is-style-full-width-text-below centered-image\"\n\tstyle=\" \"\n>\n\t<figure class=\"wp-block-video\">\r\n<span class=\"embed-youtube\" style=\"text-align:center; display: block;\"><iframe loading=\"lazy\" class=\"youtube-player\" width=\"640\" height=\"360\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/I_bYlY6AHew?version=3&#038;rel=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;showinfo=1&#038;iv_load_policy=1&#038;fs=1&#038;hl=en-US&#038;autohide=2&#038;wmode=transparent\" allowfullscreen=\"true\" style=\"border:0;\" sandbox=\"allow-scripts allow-same-origin allow-popups allow-presentation allow-popups-to-escape-sandbox\"><\/iframe><\/span>\r\n<figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><p class=\"wp-element-caption--credit\">Photo by Ned Brown\/Harvard Staff<\/p><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\t<div class=\"article-header__content\">\n\t\t\t<a\n\t\t\tclass=\"article-header__category\"\n\t\t\thref=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/section\/science-technology\/\"\n\t\t>\n\t\t\tScience &amp; Tech\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\n\t\t<h1 class=\"article-header__title wp-block-heading \">\n\t\tRight down the middle, explained\t<\/h1>\n\n\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t<div class=\"article-header__meta\">\n\t\t<div class=\"wp-block-post-author\">\n\t\t\t<address class=\"wp-block-post-author__content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"author wp-block-post-author__name\">\n\t\tPeter Reuell\t<\/p>\n\t\t\t<p class=\"wp-block-post-author__byline\">\n\t\t\tHarvard Staff Writer\t\t<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/address>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<time class=\"article-header__date\" datetime=\"2013-06-26\">\n\t\t\tJune 26, 2013\t\t<\/time>\n\n\t\t<span class=\"article-header__reading-time\">\n\t\t\t8 min read\t\t<\/span>\n\t<\/div>\n\n\t\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"article-header__subheading wp-block-heading\">\n\t\t\tResearch: Fast, accurate throwing played key role in evolution\t\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\n<\/header>\n\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignwide has-global-padding is-content-justification-center is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\">\n\n\n\t\t<p>It\u2019s easy to marvel at the athleticism and power behind a 90 mph fastball, but when Neil Roach watches a baseball game, he sees something else at work: evolution.<\/p>\n<p>That ability \u2014 to throw an object with great speed and accuracy \u2014 is a uniquely human adaptation, one that Roach believes was crucial in our evolutionary past. How, when, and why humans evolved the ability to throw so well is the subject of a study published today in the journal Nature.<\/p>\n<p>Roach, who received his Ph.D. from the Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in June, led the study, working with Madhusudhan Venkadesan of the National Centre for Biological Sciences at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Michael Rainbow of the Spaulding National Running Center, and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.fas.harvard.edu\/~skeleton\/danlhome.html\">Daniel Lieberman<\/a>, the Edwin M. Lerner II Professor of Biological Sciences at Harvard. The group found that changes to shoulders and arms allowed early humans to more efficiently hunt by throwing projectiles, helping our ancestors become part-time carnivores and paving the way for a host of later adaptations, including increases in brain size and migration out of Africa.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cWhen we started this research, there were essentially two questions we asked: One of them was why are humans so uniquely good at throwing, while all other creatures, including our chimpanzee cousins, are not,\u201d said Roach, now a postdoctoral researcher at <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gwu.edu\/\">George Washington University<\/a>. \u201cThe other question was: How do we do it? What is it about our body that enables this behavior, and can we identify those changes in the fossil record?\u201d<\/p>\n<p>What they found, Roach said, was a suite of physical changes \u2014 such as the lowering and widening of the shoulders, an expansion of the waist, and a twisting of the humerus \u2014 that make humans especially good at throwing.<\/p>\n<p>While some of those changes occurred earlier during human evolution, Lieberman said it wasn\u2019t until the appearance of <i>Homo erectus, <\/i>about 2 million years ago, that they all appeared together. The same period is also marked by some of the earliest signs of effective hunting, suggesting that the ability to throw an object very fast and very accurately played a critical role in the human ability to rise to the top of the food chain.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThe ability to throw was one of a handful of changes that enabled us to become carnivores, which then triggered a host of changes that occurred later in our evolution,\u201d Lieberman said. \u201cIf we were not good at throwing and running and a few other things, we would not have been able to evolve our large brains, and all the cognitive abilities such as language that come with it. If it were not for our ability to throw, we would not be who we are today.\u201d<\/p>\n\r\n\t\n\n\t<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter  size-full is-resized\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"500\" height=\"334\" src=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_02_500.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-142167\" srcset=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_02_500.jpg 500w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_02_500.jpg?resize=150,100 150w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_02_500.jpg?resize=300,200 300w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_02_500.jpg?resize=48,32 48w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_02_500.jpg?resize=96,64 96w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\" \/><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">\u201cThe ability to throw was one of a handful of changes that enabled us to become carnivores, which then triggered a host of changes that occurred later in our evolution,\u201d said Daniel Lieberman.\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\t\n\t\r\n\n<p>To unpack the evolutionary origins of throwing, Roach began with the throwing motion of our closest relatives: chimpanzees.<\/p>\n<p>Though they\u2019re known to throw objects underhand, chimps, on rare occasions, do throw overhand, but with much less accuracy and power than the average Little League pitcher, Roach said. Also, chimps throw as a part of display behavior, never when hunting.<\/p>\n<p>Part of the reason for chimps\u2019 poor throwing, Lieberman said, is tied to their technique, which in turn is limited by their anatomy. \u201cChimps throw overhand using either a dart throwing motion, where the elbow is extended, or much like a cricket bowler, where their elbow is kept straight and they generate force by swinging their shoulder.\u201d<\/p>\n\r\n<div class=\"wp-block-harvard-gazette-supporting-content alignleft supporting-content\" id=\"supporting-content-1f6874f4-ebc0-4d36-87bd-0bcca6efb7ce\">\n\t<div class=\"featured-articles is-post-type-post is-style-grid-list\"  style=\"\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"featured-articles__title wp-block-heading\">More like this<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t<ul class=\"featured-articles__list \">\n\t\t\n\t\t<li class=\"featured-article \">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"featured-article__image\">\n\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1200\" height=\"750\" src=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1200%2C750\" class=\"attachment-large-landscape-desktop size-large-landscape-desktop\" alt=\"\" srcset=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=608,380 608w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=784,490 784w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1024,640 1024w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1200,750 1200w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1488,930 1488w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1680,1050 1680w\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"featured-article__content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"featured-article__category\" href=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/section\/science-technology\/\">\n\t\t\tScience &amp; Tech\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"featured-article__title wp-block-heading \"><a href=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2018\/04\/harvard-evolutionary-biologist-daniel-lieberman-on-the-past-present-and-future-of-speed\/\">How fast can we run?<\/a><\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"featured-article__meta\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<time class=\"featured-article__date\" datetime=\"2018-04-13\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tApril 13, 2018\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/time>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"featured-article__reading-time\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tlong read\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\n\t\t\n\t\t<li class=\"featured-article \">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"featured-article__image\">\n\t\t\t\t<img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"1200\" height=\"750\" src=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/02\/021616_lieberman_zink_0852_605.jpg?resize=1200%2C750\" class=\"attachment-large-landscape-desktop size-large-landscape-desktop\" alt=\"\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"featured-article__content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"featured-article__category\" href=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/section\/science-technology\/\">\n\t\t\tScience &amp; Tech\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"featured-article__title wp-block-heading \"><a href=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2016\/03\/big-gains-in-better-chewing\/\">Big gains in better chewing<\/a><\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"featured-article__meta\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<time class=\"featured-article__date\" datetime=\"2016-03-20\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarch 20, 2016\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/time>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"featured-article__reading-time\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 min read\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\n\t\t\t\t<\/ul>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t<\/div>\r\n\n<p>Said Roach: \u201cThat led us to studying cricket bowlers and trying to understand what happens when you keep your arm straight, and why that diminishes your throwing ability. Eventually, we began to think that changes in the way the shoulder is oriented with regards to the rest of the body could change the way you generate force when you\u2019re throwing.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>To explore those physical changes, Roach and colleagues began by creating a complex model that incorporated current research about the biomechanics of throwing. Using that model, they were able to explore how morphological changes to the body \u2014 wider shoulders, arms that are higher or lower on the body, the ability to twist the upper body independently of the hips and legs, and the anatomy of the humerus \u2014 affect throwing performance.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the modeling, Roach performed a series of real-world experiments in Lieberman\u2019s Skeletal Biology Lab using members of the Harvard baseball team and a host of braces designed to limit their movements.<\/p>\n\n<p>The idea, Roach explained, was that by restricting certain motions, the players would be forced into a more primitive condition, giving him the opportunity to see how different anatomical shifts contribute to the mechanics of modern throwing.<\/p>\n<p>Through a method known as inverse dynamics, Roach and colleagues were able to not only quantify how much restricting certain types of movements affected throwing performance, but were able to trace the effect to specific changes in the mechanics of each player.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cWe try to push these bits of anatomy back in time, if you will, to see how that affects performance,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThe important thing about our experiments is that they went beyond just being able to measure how the restriction affects someone\u2019s ability to throw fast and accurately; they allowed us to figure out the underlying physics. For example, when a thrower\u2019s velocity dropped by 10 percent, we could trace that change back to where it occurred.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cIn order to test our evolutionary hypotheses, we needed to link the changes we\u2019d seen in the fossil record to performance in terms of throwing,\u201d he continued. \u201cThis type of analysis allowed us to do that.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>When a pitcher\u2019s arm is cocked, \u201cwhat they\u2019re doing is stretching the ligaments and tendons that run across their shoulder,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThose tendons and ligaments get loaded up like the elastic bands on a slingshot, and late in the throw they release that energy rapidly and forcefully to rotate the upper arm with extraordinary speed and force.\u201d That rotation is the fastest motion the human body can produce. \u201cThe rotation of the humerus can reach up to 9,000 degrees per second, which generates an incredible amount of energy, causing you to rapidly extend your elbow, producing a very fast throw,\u201d Roach said.<\/p>\n<p>Among the evolutionary changes that proved key to generating powerful throwing motions, he said, was a twist in the bone of the upper arm and an expanded, mobile waist, which gave early humans the ability to store up and then release more of this elastic energy.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThe linchpin is really what\u2019s going on with the shoulder,\u201d Roach said. \u201cWhen you see the shift from a chimpanzee shoulder to a more relaxed humanlike shoulder, that enables this massive energy storage. Many of the evolutionary changes we studied, whether in the torso or the wrist, may predate <i>Homo erectus<\/i>, but when we see that final change in the shoulder, that\u2019s what brings it all together.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>While the findings help shed light on a critical phase of human evolution, they also offer touch on a hotly debated issue in sports: When it comes to young players, how much throwing is too much?<\/p>\n<p>\u201cIt\u2019s a tough question to answer,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThe real difference, from an evolutionary perspective, is the frequency with which some folks throw now. To successfully learn to throw and use that ability to hunt, our ancestors would need to throw often, but nothing like the 100 or more high-speed throws that some baseball pitchers throw now in the span of a couple of hours.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cI think it\u2019s really a case of what we evolved to do being superseded by what we\u2019re now asking athletes to do,\u201d he continued. \u201cAthletes are overusing this capability that gave early humans an evolutionary advantage, and they\u2019re overusing it to the point that injuries are common.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, Lieberman said, the evidence points to one clear conclusion: The ability to throw with speed and accuracy is a uniquely human adaptation, one that played an immeasurably important role in human development.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cRecent research indicates that stone points \u2014 the oldest kind of spear point \u2014 are about 500,000 years old,\u201d he said. \u201cBut people have been killing animals for at least 2 million years, and eating animals for about 2.6 million years.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThat means that for about 1.5 million years, when people hunted, they basically had nothing more lethal to throw than a pointed wooden stick,\u201d he continued. \u201cIf you want to kill something with that, you have to be able to throw that pretty hard, and you have to be accurate. Imagine how important it must have been to our ancestors to throw hard and fast.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n<\/div>\n\n\t\t","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>The ability to throw an object with great speed and accuracy is a uniquely human adaptation, one that Harvard researchers say played a key role in our evolution. <\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":105622744,"featured_media":142166,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"gz_ga_pageviews":17,"gz_ga_lastupdated":"2021-11-08 04:22","document_color_palette":"crimson","author":"Peter Reuell","affiliation":"Harvard Staff Writer","_category_override":"","_yoast_wpseo_primary_category":"","_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":""},"categories":[1387],"tags":[2908,4731,5397,8010,9716,11937,12776,12941,13050,15359,16899,16903,17148,17396,17473,24504,25205,25338,27327,29171,31273,31437,33210,33901,34165],"gazette-formats":[],"series":[],"class_list":["post-141974","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-science-technology","tag-accuracy","tag-arm","tag-baseball","tag-chimpanzees","tag-dan-lieberman","tag-elastic-energy","tag-evolution","tag-faculty-of-arts-and-sciences","tag-fas","tag-harvard","tag-high-speed","tag-high-velocity","tag-homo-erectus","tag-human-evolutionary-biology","tag-humerus","tag-morphology","tag-nature","tag-neil-roach","tag-peter-reuell","tag-research","tag-shoulder","tag-skeletal-changes","tag-teaching-and-learning","tag-throwing","tag-torso"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v23.0 (Yoast SEO v27.1.1) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-premium-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Right down the middle, explained &#8212; Harvard Gazette<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"The ability to throw an object with great speed and accuracy is a uniquely human adaptation, one that Harvard researchers say played a key role in our evolution.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2013\/06\/right-down-the-middle-explained\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"en_US\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Right down the middle, explained &#8212; Harvard Gazette\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"The ability to throw an object with great speed and accuracy is a uniquely human adaptation, one that Harvard researchers say played a key role in our evolution.\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2013\/06\/right-down-the-middle-explained\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"Harvard Gazette\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2013-06-26T17:00:28+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2019-07-10T21:45:32+00:00\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_01_6051.jpg\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"605\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"403\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\/jpeg\" \/>\n<meta name=\"author\" content=\"harvardgazette\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\">{\"@context\":\"https:\/\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"Article\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2013\/06\/right-down-the-middle-explained\/#article\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2013\/06\/right-down-the-middle-explained\/\"},\"author\":{\"name\":\"harvardgazette\",\"@id\":\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/#\/schema\/person\/78d028cf624923e92682268709ffbc4b\"},\"headline\":\"Right down the middle, explained\",\"datePublished\":\"2013-06-26T17:00:28+00:00\",\"dateModified\":\"2019-07-10T21:45:32+00:00\",\"mainEntityOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2013\/06\/right-down-the-middle-explained\/\"},\"wordCount\":1489,\"publisher\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/#organization\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2013\/06\/right-down-the-middle-explained\/#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_01_6051.jpg\",\"keywords\":[\"accuracy\",\"arm\",\"Baseball\",\"Chimpanzees\",\"Dan Lieberman\",\"elastic energy\",\"Evolution\",\"Faculty of Arts and Sciences\",\"FAS\",\"Harvard\",\"high speed\",\"high velocity\",\"Homo erectus\",\"Human evolutionary biology\",\"humerus\",\"morphology\",\"Nature\",\"Neil Roach\",\"Peter Reuell\",\"Research\",\"shoulder\",\"skeletal changes\",\"teaching and learning\",\"throwing\",\"torso\"],\"articleSection\":[\"Science &amp; 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Tech\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\n\t\t<h1 class=\"article-header__title wp-block-heading \">\n\t\tRight down the middle, explained\t<\/h1>\n\n\t\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\n\t<div class=\"article-header__meta\">\n\t\t<div class=\"wp-block-post-author\">\n\t\t\t<address class=\"wp-block-post-author__content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t<p class=\"author wp-block-post-author__name\">\n\t\tPeter Reuell\t<\/p>\n\t\t\t<p class=\"wp-block-post-author__byline\">\n\t\t\tHarvard Staff Writer\t\t<\/p>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/address>\n\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t\t<time class=\"article-header__date\" datetime=\"2013-06-26\">\n\t\t\tJune 26, 2013\t\t<\/time>\n\n\t\t<span class=\"article-header__reading-time\">\n\t\t\t8 min read\t\t<\/span>\n\t<\/div>\n\n\t\n\t\t\t<h2 class=\"article-header__subheading wp-block-heading\">\n\t\t\tResearch: Fast, accurate throwing played key role in evolution\t\t<\/h2>\n\t\t\n<\/header>\n"},"2":{"blockName":"core\/group","attrs":{"templateLock":false,"metadata":{"name":"Article content"},"align":"wide","layout":{"type":"constrained","justifyContent":"center"},"tagName":"div","lock":[],"className":"","style":[],"backgroundColor":"","textColor":"","gradient":"","fontSize":"","fontFamily":"","borderColor":"","ariaLabel":"","anchor":""},"innerBlocks":[{"blockName":"core\/freeform","attrs":{"content":"","lock":[],"metadata":[]},"innerBlocks":[],"innerHTML":"\n\t\t<p>It\u2019s easy to marvel at the athleticism and power behind a 90 mph fastball, but when Neil Roach watches a baseball game, he sees something else at work: evolution.<\/p>\n<p>That ability \u2014 to throw an object with great speed and accuracy \u2014 is a uniquely human adaptation, one that Roach believes was crucial in our evolutionary past. How, when, and why humans evolved the ability to throw so well is the subject of a study published today in the journal Nature.<\/p>\n<p>Roach, who received his Ph.D. from the Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in June, led the study, working with Madhusudhan Venkadesan of the National Centre for Biological Sciences at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Michael Rainbow of the Spaulding National Running Center, and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.fas.harvard.edu\/~skeleton\/danlhome.html\">Daniel Lieberman<\/a>, the Edwin M. Lerner II Professor of Biological Sciences at Harvard. The group found that changes to shoulders and arms allowed early humans to more efficiently hunt by throwing projectiles, helping our ancestors become part-time carnivores and paving the way for a host of later adaptations, including increases in brain size and migration out of Africa.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cWhen we started this research, there were essentially two questions we asked: One of them was why are humans so uniquely good at throwing, while all other creatures, including our chimpanzee cousins, are not,\u201d said Roach, now a postdoctoral researcher at <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gwu.edu\/\">George Washington University<\/a>. \u201cThe other question was: How do we do it? What is it about our body that enables this behavior, and can we identify those changes in the fossil record?\u201d<\/p>\n<p>What they found, Roach said, was a suite of physical changes \u2014 such as the lowering and widening of the shoulders, an expansion of the waist, and a twisting of the humerus \u2014 that make humans especially good at throwing.<\/p>\n<p>While some of those changes occurred earlier during human evolution, Lieberman said it wasn\u2019t until the appearance of <i>Homo erectus, <\/i>about 2 million years ago, that they all appeared together. The same period is also marked by some of the earliest signs of effective hunting, suggesting that the ability to throw an object very fast and very accurately played a critical role in the human ability to rise to the top of the food chain.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThe ability to throw was one of a handful of changes that enabled us to become carnivores, which then triggered a host of changes that occurred later in our evolution,\u201d Lieberman said. \u201cIf we were not good at throwing and running and a few other things, we would not have been able to evolve our large brains, and all the cognitive abilities such as language that come with it. If it were not for our ability to throw, we would not be who we are today.\u201d<\/p>\n","innerContent":["\n\t\t<p>It\u2019s easy to marvel at the athleticism and power behind a 90 mph fastball, but when Neil Roach watches a baseball game, he sees something else at work: evolution.<\/p>\n<p>That ability \u2014 to throw an object with great speed and accuracy \u2014 is a uniquely human adaptation, one that Roach believes was crucial in our evolutionary past. How, when, and why humans evolved the ability to throw so well is the subject of a study published today in the journal Nature.<\/p>\n<p>Roach, who received his Ph.D. from the Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in June, led the study, working with Madhusudhan Venkadesan of the National Centre for Biological Sciences at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Michael Rainbow of the Spaulding National Running Center, and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.fas.harvard.edu\/~skeleton\/danlhome.html\">Daniel Lieberman<\/a>, the Edwin M. Lerner II Professor of Biological Sciences at Harvard. The group found that changes to shoulders and arms allowed early humans to more efficiently hunt by throwing projectiles, helping our ancestors become part-time carnivores and paving the way for a host of later adaptations, including increases in brain size and migration out of Africa.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cWhen we started this research, there were essentially two questions we asked: One of them was why are humans so uniquely good at throwing, while all other creatures, including our chimpanzee cousins, are not,\u201d said Roach, now a postdoctoral researcher at <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gwu.edu\/\">George Washington University<\/a>. \u201cThe other question was: How do we do it? What is it about our body that enables this behavior, and can we identify those changes in the fossil record?\u201d<\/p>\n<p>What they found, Roach said, was a suite of physical changes \u2014 such as the lowering and widening of the shoulders, an expansion of the waist, and a twisting of the humerus \u2014 that make humans especially good at throwing.<\/p>\n<p>While some of those changes occurred earlier during human evolution, Lieberman said it wasn\u2019t until the appearance of <i>Homo erectus, <\/i>about 2 million years ago, that they all appeared together. The same period is also marked by some of the earliest signs of effective hunting, suggesting that the ability to throw an object very fast and very accurately played a critical role in the human ability to rise to the top of the food chain.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThe ability to throw was one of a handful of changes that enabled us to become carnivores, which then triggered a host of changes that occurred later in our evolution,\u201d Lieberman said. \u201cIf we were not good at throwing and running and a few other things, we would not have been able to evolve our large brains, and all the cognitive abilities such as language that come with it. If it were not for our ability to throw, we would not be who we are today.\u201d<\/p>\n"],"rendered":"\n\t\t<p>It\u2019s easy to marvel at the athleticism and power behind a 90 mph fastball, but when Neil Roach watches a baseball game, he sees something else at work: evolution.<\/p>\n<p>That ability \u2014 to throw an object with great speed and accuracy \u2014 is a uniquely human adaptation, one that Roach believes was crucial in our evolutionary past. How, when, and why humans evolved the ability to throw so well is the subject of a study published today in the journal Nature.<\/p>\n<p>Roach, who received his Ph.D. from the Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in June, led the study, working with Madhusudhan Venkadesan of the National Centre for Biological Sciences at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Michael Rainbow of the Spaulding National Running Center, and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.fas.harvard.edu\/~skeleton\/danlhome.html\">Daniel Lieberman<\/a>, the Edwin M. Lerner II Professor of Biological Sciences at Harvard. The group found that changes to shoulders and arms allowed early humans to more efficiently hunt by throwing projectiles, helping our ancestors become part-time carnivores and paving the way for a host of later adaptations, including increases in brain size and migration out of Africa.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cWhen we started this research, there were essentially two questions we asked: One of them was why are humans so uniquely good at throwing, while all other creatures, including our chimpanzee cousins, are not,\u201d said Roach, now a postdoctoral researcher at <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gwu.edu\/\">George Washington University<\/a>. \u201cThe other question was: How do we do it? What is it about our body that enables this behavior, and can we identify those changes in the fossil record?\u201d<\/p>\n<p>What they found, Roach said, was a suite of physical changes \u2014 such as the lowering and widening of the shoulders, an expansion of the waist, and a twisting of the humerus \u2014 that make humans especially good at throwing.<\/p>\n<p>While some of those changes occurred earlier during human evolution, Lieberman said it wasn\u2019t until the appearance of <i>Homo erectus, <\/i>about 2 million years ago, that they all appeared together. The same period is also marked by some of the earliest signs of effective hunting, suggesting that the ability to throw an object very fast and very accurately played a critical role in the human ability to rise to the top of the food chain.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThe ability to throw was one of a handful of changes that enabled us to become carnivores, which then triggered a host of changes that occurred later in our evolution,\u201d Lieberman said. \u201cIf we were not good at throwing and running and a few other things, we would not have been able to evolve our large brains, and all the cognitive abilities such as language that come with it. If it were not for our ability to throw, we would not be who we are today.\u201d<\/p>\n"},{"blockName":"core\/image","attrs":{"sizeSlug":"full","align":"center","id":142167,"caption":"\u201cThe ability to throw was one of a handful of changes that enabled us to become carnivores, which then triggered a host of changes that occurred later in our evolution,\u201d said Daniel Lieberman.","blob":"","url":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_02_500.jpg","alt":"","lightbox":[],"title":"","href":"","rel":"","linkClass":"","width":"","height":"","aspectRatio":"","scale":"","linkDestination":"","linkTarget":"","lock":[],"metadata":[],"className":"","style":[],"borderColor":"","anchor":""},"innerBlocks":[],"innerHTML":"\n\n\t<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter  size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_02_500.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-142167\"><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">\u201cThe ability to throw was one of a handful of changes that enabled us to become carnivores, which then triggered a host of changes that occurred later in our evolution,\u201d said Daniel Lieberman.\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\t","innerContent":["\n\n\t<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter  size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_02_500.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-142167\"><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">\u201cThe ability to throw was one of a handful of changes that enabled us to become carnivores, which then triggered a host of changes that occurred later in our evolution,\u201d said Daniel Lieberman.\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\t"],"rendered":"\n\n\t<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter  size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_02_500.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-142167\"><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">\u201cThe ability to throw was one of a handful of changes that enabled us to become carnivores, which then triggered a host of changes that occurred later in our evolution,\u201d said Daniel Lieberman.\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\t"},{"blockName":"core\/freeform","attrs":{"content":"","lock":[],"metadata":[]},"innerBlocks":[],"innerHTML":"\n<p>To unpack the evolutionary origins of throwing, Roach began with the throwing motion of our closest relatives: chimpanzees.<\/p>\n<p>Though they\u2019re known to throw objects underhand, chimps, on rare occasions, do throw overhand, but with much less accuracy and power than the average Little League pitcher, Roach said. Also, chimps throw as a part of display behavior, never when hunting.<\/p>\n<p>Part of the reason for chimps\u2019 poor throwing, Lieberman said, is tied to their technique, which in turn is limited by their anatomy. \u201cChimps throw overhand using either a dart throwing motion, where the elbow is extended, or much like a cricket bowler, where their elbow is kept straight and they generate force by swinging their shoulder.\u201d<\/p>\n","innerContent":["\n<p>To unpack the evolutionary origins of throwing, Roach began with the throwing motion of our closest relatives: chimpanzees.<\/p>\n<p>Though they\u2019re known to throw objects underhand, chimps, on rare occasions, do throw overhand, but with much less accuracy and power than the average Little League pitcher, Roach said. Also, chimps throw as a part of display behavior, never when hunting.<\/p>\n<p>Part of the reason for chimps\u2019 poor throwing, Lieberman said, is tied to their technique, which in turn is limited by their anatomy. \u201cChimps throw overhand using either a dart throwing motion, where the elbow is extended, or much like a cricket bowler, where their elbow is kept straight and they generate force by swinging their shoulder.\u201d<\/p>\n"],"rendered":"\n<p>To unpack the evolutionary origins of throwing, Roach began with the throwing motion of our closest relatives: chimpanzees.<\/p>\n<p>Though they\u2019re known to throw objects underhand, chimps, on rare occasions, do throw overhand, but with much less accuracy and power than the average Little League pitcher, Roach said. Also, chimps throw as a part of display behavior, never when hunting.<\/p>\n<p>Part of the reason for chimps\u2019 poor throwing, Lieberman said, is tied to their technique, which in turn is limited by their anatomy. \u201cChimps throw overhand using either a dart throwing motion, where the elbow is extended, or much like a cricket bowler, where their elbow is kept straight and they generate force by swinging their shoulder.\u201d<\/p>\n"},{"blockName":"harvard-gazette\/supporting-content","attrs":{"id":"1f6874f4-ebc0-4d36-87bd-0bcca6efb7ce","align":"left","allowedBlocks":[],"style":[],"lock":[],"metadata":[],"className":""},"innerBlocks":[{"blockName":"harvard-gazette\/featured-articles","attrs":{"autoGenerate":false,"className":"is-style-grid-list","inPostContent":true,"numberOfPosts":2,"postIds":[240613,179677],"showExcerpt":false,"title":"More like this","category":"","carouselOnDesktop":false,"isEditor":false,"linkText":"See all book reviews","passPostIds":false,"postOverrides":[],"postTypeOverride":"post","receivePostIds":false,"series":"","showCategory":true,"showDate":true,"gridColumns":2,"showDropShadow":false,"showFormat":true,"showImage":true,"showImageZoom":false,"showSeries":true,"showReadMore":true,"showReadTime":true,"tags":[],"useCurrentTerm":false,"lock":[],"metadata":[],"align":"","style":[]},"innerBlocks":[],"innerHTML":"","innerContent":[],"rendered":"\n\t<div class=\"featured-articles is-post-type-post is-style-grid-list\"  style=\"\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"featured-articles__title wp-block-heading\">More like this<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t<ul class=\"featured-articles__list \">\n\t\t\n\t\t<li class=\"featured-article \">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"featured-article__image\">\n\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1200\" height=\"750\" src=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1200%2C750\" class=\"attachment-large-landscape-desktop size-large-landscape-desktop\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=608,380 608w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=784,490 784w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1024,640 1024w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1200,750 1200w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1488,930 1488w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1680,1050 1680w\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"featured-article__content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"featured-article__category\" href=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/section\/science-technology\/\">\n\t\t\tScience &amp; 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Tech\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"featured-article__title wp-block-heading \"><a href=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2016\/03\/big-gains-in-better-chewing\/\">Big gains in better chewing<\/a><\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"featured-article__meta\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<time class=\"featured-article__date\" datetime=\"2016-03-20\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarch 20, 2016\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/time>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"featured-article__reading-time\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 min read\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\n\t\t\t\t<\/ul>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t<\/div>"},{"blockName":"core\/freeform","attrs":{"content":"","lock":[],"metadata":[]},"innerBlocks":[],"innerHTML":"\n<p>Said Roach: \u201cThat led us to studying cricket bowlers and trying to understand what happens when you keep your arm straight, and why that diminishes your throwing ability. Eventually, we began to think that changes in the way the shoulder is oriented with regards to the rest of the body could change the way you generate force when you\u2019re throwing.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>To explore those physical changes, Roach and colleagues began by creating a complex model that incorporated current research about the biomechanics of throwing. Using that model, they were able to explore how morphological changes to the body \u2014 wider shoulders, arms that are higher or lower on the body, the ability to twist the upper body independently of the hips and legs, and the anatomy of the humerus \u2014 affect throwing performance.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the modeling, Roach performed a series of real-world experiments in Lieberman\u2019s Skeletal Biology Lab using members of the Harvard baseball team and a host of braces designed to limit their movements.<\/p>\n\n<p>The idea, Roach explained, was that by restricting certain motions, the players would be forced into a more primitive condition, giving him the opportunity to see how different anatomical shifts contribute to the mechanics of modern throwing.<\/p>\n<p>Through a method known as inverse dynamics, Roach and colleagues were able to not only quantify how much restricting certain types of movements affected throwing performance, but were able to trace the effect to specific changes in the mechanics of each player.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cWe try to push these bits of anatomy back in time, if you will, to see how that affects performance,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThe important thing about our experiments is that they went beyond just being able to measure how the restriction affects someone\u2019s ability to throw fast and accurately; they allowed us to figure out the underlying physics. For example, when a thrower\u2019s velocity dropped by 10 percent, we could trace that change back to where it occurred.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cIn order to test our evolutionary hypotheses, we needed to link the changes we\u2019d seen in the fossil record to performance in terms of throwing,\u201d he continued. \u201cThis type of analysis allowed us to do that.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>When a pitcher\u2019s arm is cocked, \u201cwhat they\u2019re doing is stretching the ligaments and tendons that run across their shoulder,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThose tendons and ligaments get loaded up like the elastic bands on a slingshot, and late in the throw they release that energy rapidly and forcefully to rotate the upper arm with extraordinary speed and force.\u201d That rotation is the fastest motion the human body can produce. \u201cThe rotation of the humerus can reach up to 9,000 degrees per second, which generates an incredible amount of energy, causing you to rapidly extend your elbow, producing a very fast throw,\u201d Roach said.<\/p>\n<p>Among the evolutionary changes that proved key to generating powerful throwing motions, he said, was a twist in the bone of the upper arm and an expanded, mobile waist, which gave early humans the ability to store up and then release more of this elastic energy.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThe linchpin is really what\u2019s going on with the shoulder,\u201d Roach said. \u201cWhen you see the shift from a chimpanzee shoulder to a more relaxed humanlike shoulder, that enables this massive energy storage. Many of the evolutionary changes we studied, whether in the torso or the wrist, may predate <i>Homo erectus<\/i>, but when we see that final change in the shoulder, that\u2019s what brings it all together.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>While the findings help shed light on a critical phase of human evolution, they also offer touch on a hotly debated issue in sports: When it comes to young players, how much throwing is too much?<\/p>\n<p>\u201cIt\u2019s a tough question to answer,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThe real difference, from an evolutionary perspective, is the frequency with which some folks throw now. To successfully learn to throw and use that ability to hunt, our ancestors would need to throw often, but nothing like the 100 or more high-speed throws that some baseball pitchers throw now in the span of a couple of hours.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cI think it\u2019s really a case of what we evolved to do being superseded by what we\u2019re now asking athletes to do,\u201d he continued. \u201cAthletes are overusing this capability that gave early humans an evolutionary advantage, and they\u2019re overusing it to the point that injuries are common.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, Lieberman said, the evidence points to one clear conclusion: The ability to throw with speed and accuracy is a uniquely human adaptation, one that played an immeasurably important role in human development.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cRecent research indicates that stone points \u2014 the oldest kind of spear point \u2014 are about 500,000 years old,\u201d he said. \u201cBut people have been killing animals for at least 2 million years, and eating animals for about 2.6 million years.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThat means that for about 1.5 million years, when people hunted, they basically had nothing more lethal to throw than a pointed wooden stick,\u201d he continued. \u201cIf you want to kill something with that, you have to be able to throw that pretty hard, and you have to be accurate. Imagine how important it must have been to our ancestors to throw hard and fast.\u201d<\/p>\n","innerContent":["\n<p>Said Roach: \u201cThat led us to studying cricket bowlers and trying to understand what happens when you keep your arm straight, and why that diminishes your throwing ability. Eventually, we began to think that changes in the way the shoulder is oriented with regards to the rest of the body could change the way you generate force when you\u2019re throwing.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>To explore those physical changes, Roach and colleagues began by creating a complex model that incorporated current research about the biomechanics of throwing. Using that model, they were able to explore how morphological changes to the body \u2014 wider shoulders, arms that are higher or lower on the body, the ability to twist the upper body independently of the hips and legs, and the anatomy of the humerus \u2014 affect throwing performance.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the modeling, Roach performed a series of real-world experiments in Lieberman\u2019s Skeletal Biology Lab using members of the Harvard baseball team and a host of braces designed to limit their movements.<\/p>\n\n<p>The idea, Roach explained, was that by restricting certain motions, the players would be forced into a more primitive condition, giving him the opportunity to see how different anatomical shifts contribute to the mechanics of modern throwing.<\/p>\n<p>Through a method known as inverse dynamics, Roach and colleagues were able to not only quantify how much restricting certain types of movements affected throwing performance, but were able to trace the effect to specific changes in the mechanics of each player.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cWe try to push these bits of anatomy back in time, if you will, to see how that affects performance,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThe important thing about our experiments is that they went beyond just being able to measure how the restriction affects someone\u2019s ability to throw fast and accurately; they allowed us to figure out the underlying physics. For example, when a thrower\u2019s velocity dropped by 10 percent, we could trace that change back to where it occurred.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cIn order to test our evolutionary hypotheses, we needed to link the changes we\u2019d seen in the fossil record to performance in terms of throwing,\u201d he continued. \u201cThis type of analysis allowed us to do that.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>When a pitcher\u2019s arm is cocked, \u201cwhat they\u2019re doing is stretching the ligaments and tendons that run across their shoulder,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThose tendons and ligaments get loaded up like the elastic bands on a slingshot, and late in the throw they release that energy rapidly and forcefully to rotate the upper arm with extraordinary speed and force.\u201d That rotation is the fastest motion the human body can produce. \u201cThe rotation of the humerus can reach up to 9,000 degrees per second, which generates an incredible amount of energy, causing you to rapidly extend your elbow, producing a very fast throw,\u201d Roach said.<\/p>\n<p>Among the evolutionary changes that proved key to generating powerful throwing motions, he said, was a twist in the bone of the upper arm and an expanded, mobile waist, which gave early humans the ability to store up and then release more of this elastic energy.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThe linchpin is really what\u2019s going on with the shoulder,\u201d Roach said. \u201cWhen you see the shift from a chimpanzee shoulder to a more relaxed humanlike shoulder, that enables this massive energy storage. Many of the evolutionary changes we studied, whether in the torso or the wrist, may predate <i>Homo erectus<\/i>, but when we see that final change in the shoulder, that\u2019s what brings it all together.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>While the findings help shed light on a critical phase of human evolution, they also offer touch on a hotly debated issue in sports: When it comes to young players, how much throwing is too much?<\/p>\n<p>\u201cIt\u2019s a tough question to answer,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThe real difference, from an evolutionary perspective, is the frequency with which some folks throw now. To successfully learn to throw and use that ability to hunt, our ancestors would need to throw often, but nothing like the 100 or more high-speed throws that some baseball pitchers throw now in the span of a couple of hours.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cI think it\u2019s really a case of what we evolved to do being superseded by what we\u2019re now asking athletes to do,\u201d he continued. \u201cAthletes are overusing this capability that gave early humans an evolutionary advantage, and they\u2019re overusing it to the point that injuries are common.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, Lieberman said, the evidence points to one clear conclusion: The ability to throw with speed and accuracy is a uniquely human adaptation, one that played an immeasurably important role in human development.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cRecent research indicates that stone points \u2014 the oldest kind of spear point \u2014 are about 500,000 years old,\u201d he said. \u201cBut people have been killing animals for at least 2 million years, and eating animals for about 2.6 million years.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThat means that for about 1.5 million years, when people hunted, they basically had nothing more lethal to throw than a pointed wooden stick,\u201d he continued. \u201cIf you want to kill something with that, you have to be able to throw that pretty hard, and you have to be accurate. Imagine how important it must have been to our ancestors to throw hard and fast.\u201d<\/p>\n"],"rendered":"\n<p>Said Roach: \u201cThat led us to studying cricket bowlers and trying to understand what happens when you keep your arm straight, and why that diminishes your throwing ability. Eventually, we began to think that changes in the way the shoulder is oriented with regards to the rest of the body could change the way you generate force when you\u2019re throwing.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>To explore those physical changes, Roach and colleagues began by creating a complex model that incorporated current research about the biomechanics of throwing. Using that model, they were able to explore how morphological changes to the body \u2014 wider shoulders, arms that are higher or lower on the body, the ability to twist the upper body independently of the hips and legs, and the anatomy of the humerus \u2014 affect throwing performance.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the modeling, Roach performed a series of real-world experiments in Lieberman\u2019s Skeletal Biology Lab using members of the Harvard baseball team and a host of braces designed to limit their movements.<\/p>\n\n<p>The idea, Roach explained, was that by restricting certain motions, the players would be forced into a more primitive condition, giving him the opportunity to see how different anatomical shifts contribute to the mechanics of modern throwing.<\/p>\n<p>Through a method known as inverse dynamics, Roach and colleagues were able to not only quantify how much restricting certain types of movements affected throwing performance, but were able to trace the effect to specific changes in the mechanics of each player.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cWe try to push these bits of anatomy back in time, if you will, to see how that affects performance,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThe important thing about our experiments is that they went beyond just being able to measure how the restriction affects someone\u2019s ability to throw fast and accurately; they allowed us to figure out the underlying physics. For example, when a thrower\u2019s velocity dropped by 10 percent, we could trace that change back to where it occurred.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cIn order to test our evolutionary hypotheses, we needed to link the changes we\u2019d seen in the fossil record to performance in terms of throwing,\u201d he continued. \u201cThis type of analysis allowed us to do that.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>When a pitcher\u2019s arm is cocked, \u201cwhat they\u2019re doing is stretching the ligaments and tendons that run across their shoulder,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThose tendons and ligaments get loaded up like the elastic bands on a slingshot, and late in the throw they release that energy rapidly and forcefully to rotate the upper arm with extraordinary speed and force.\u201d That rotation is the fastest motion the human body can produce. \u201cThe rotation of the humerus can reach up to 9,000 degrees per second, which generates an incredible amount of energy, causing you to rapidly extend your elbow, producing a very fast throw,\u201d Roach said.<\/p>\n<p>Among the evolutionary changes that proved key to generating powerful throwing motions, he said, was a twist in the bone of the upper arm and an expanded, mobile waist, which gave early humans the ability to store up and then release more of this elastic energy.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThe linchpin is really what\u2019s going on with the shoulder,\u201d Roach said. \u201cWhen you see the shift from a chimpanzee shoulder to a more relaxed humanlike shoulder, that enables this massive energy storage. Many of the evolutionary changes we studied, whether in the torso or the wrist, may predate <i>Homo erectus<\/i>, but when we see that final change in the shoulder, that\u2019s what brings it all together.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>While the findings help shed light on a critical phase of human evolution, they also offer touch on a hotly debated issue in sports: When it comes to young players, how much throwing is too much?<\/p>\n<p>\u201cIt\u2019s a tough question to answer,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThe real difference, from an evolutionary perspective, is the frequency with which some folks throw now. To successfully learn to throw and use that ability to hunt, our ancestors would need to throw often, but nothing like the 100 or more high-speed throws that some baseball pitchers throw now in the span of a couple of hours.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cI think it\u2019s really a case of what we evolved to do being superseded by what we\u2019re now asking athletes to do,\u201d he continued. \u201cAthletes are overusing this capability that gave early humans an evolutionary advantage, and they\u2019re overusing it to the point that injuries are common.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, Lieberman said, the evidence points to one clear conclusion: The ability to throw with speed and accuracy is a uniquely human adaptation, one that played an immeasurably important role in human development.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cRecent research indicates that stone points \u2014 the oldest kind of spear point \u2014 are about 500,000 years old,\u201d he said. \u201cBut people have been killing animals for at least 2 million years, and eating animals for about 2.6 million years.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThat means that for about 1.5 million years, when people hunted, they basically had nothing more lethal to throw than a pointed wooden stick,\u201d he continued. \u201cIf you want to kill something with that, you have to be able to throw that pretty hard, and you have to be accurate. Imagine how important it must have been to our ancestors to throw hard and fast.\u201d<\/p>\n"}],"innerHTML":"\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignwide\">\n\n\r\n\t\n\t\r\n\r\n\r\n\n\n<\/div>\n","innerContent":["\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignwide\">\n\n","\r\n\t","\n\t\r\n","\r\n","\r\n","\n\n<\/div>\n"],"rendered":"\n<div class=\"wp-block-group alignwide has-global-padding is-content-justification-center is-layout-constrained wp-block-group-is-layout-constrained\">\n\n\n\t\t<p>It\u2019s easy to marvel at the athleticism and power behind a 90 mph fastball, but when Neil Roach watches a baseball game, he sees something else at work: evolution.<\/p>\n<p>That ability \u2014 to throw an object with great speed and accuracy \u2014 is a uniquely human adaptation, one that Roach believes was crucial in our evolutionary past. How, when, and why humans evolved the ability to throw so well is the subject of a study published today in the journal Nature.<\/p>\n<p>Roach, who received his Ph.D. from the Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in June, led the study, working with Madhusudhan Venkadesan of the National Centre for Biological Sciences at the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Michael Rainbow of the Spaulding National Running Center, and <a href=\"http:\/\/www.fas.harvard.edu\/~skeleton\/danlhome.html\">Daniel Lieberman<\/a>, the Edwin M. Lerner II Professor of Biological Sciences at Harvard. The group found that changes to shoulders and arms allowed early humans to more efficiently hunt by throwing projectiles, helping our ancestors become part-time carnivores and paving the way for a host of later adaptations, including increases in brain size and migration out of Africa.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cWhen we started this research, there were essentially two questions we asked: One of them was why are humans so uniquely good at throwing, while all other creatures, including our chimpanzee cousins, are not,\u201d said Roach, now a postdoctoral researcher at <a href=\"http:\/\/www.gwu.edu\/\">George Washington University<\/a>. \u201cThe other question was: How do we do it? What is it about our body that enables this behavior, and can we identify those changes in the fossil record?\u201d<\/p>\n<p>What they found, Roach said, was a suite of physical changes \u2014 such as the lowering and widening of the shoulders, an expansion of the waist, and a twisting of the humerus \u2014 that make humans especially good at throwing.<\/p>\n<p>While some of those changes occurred earlier during human evolution, Lieberman said it wasn\u2019t until the appearance of <i>Homo erectus, <\/i>about 2 million years ago, that they all appeared together. The same period is also marked by some of the earliest signs of effective hunting, suggesting that the ability to throw an object very fast and very accurately played a critical role in the human ability to rise to the top of the food chain.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThe ability to throw was one of a handful of changes that enabled us to become carnivores, which then triggered a host of changes that occurred later in our evolution,\u201d Lieberman said. \u201cIf we were not good at throwing and running and a few other things, we would not have been able to evolve our large brains, and all the cognitive abilities such as language that come with it. If it were not for our ability to throw, we would not be who we are today.\u201d<\/p>\n\r\n\t\n\n\t<figure class=\"wp-block-image aligncenter  size-full is-resized\"><img src=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/06\/062513_spear_throwing_screen_grab_02_500.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-142167\"><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\">\u201cThe ability to throw was one of a handful of changes that enabled us to become carnivores, which then triggered a host of changes that occurred later in our evolution,\u201d said Daniel Lieberman.\t\t\t<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\t\n\t\r\n\n<p>To unpack the evolutionary origins of throwing, Roach began with the throwing motion of our closest relatives: chimpanzees.<\/p>\n<p>Though they\u2019re known to throw objects underhand, chimps, on rare occasions, do throw overhand, but with much less accuracy and power than the average Little League pitcher, Roach said. Also, chimps throw as a part of display behavior, never when hunting.<\/p>\n<p>Part of the reason for chimps\u2019 poor throwing, Lieberman said, is tied to their technique, which in turn is limited by their anatomy. \u201cChimps throw overhand using either a dart throwing motion, where the elbow is extended, or much like a cricket bowler, where their elbow is kept straight and they generate force by swinging their shoulder.\u201d<\/p>\n\r\n<div class=\"wp-block-harvard-gazette-supporting-content alignleft supporting-content\" id=\"supporting-content-1f6874f4-ebc0-4d36-87bd-0bcca6efb7ce\">\n\t<div class=\"featured-articles is-post-type-post is-style-grid-list\"  style=\"\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<h2 class=\"featured-articles__title wp-block-heading\">More like this<\/h2>\n\t\t\t\t<ul class=\"featured-articles__list \">\n\t\t\n\t\t<li class=\"featured-article \">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"featured-article__image\">\n\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1200\" height=\"750\" src=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1200%2C750\" class=\"attachment-large-landscape-desktop size-large-landscape-desktop\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" srcset=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=608,380 608w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=784,490 784w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1024,640 1024w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1200,750 1200w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1488,930 1488w, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/03\/031618_lieberman_010.jpg?resize=1680,1050 1680w\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"featured-article__content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"featured-article__category\" href=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/section\/science-technology\/\">\n\t\t\tScience &amp; Tech\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"featured-article__title wp-block-heading \"><a href=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2018\/04\/harvard-evolutionary-biologist-daniel-lieberman-on-the-past-present-and-future-of-speed\/\">How fast can we run?<\/a><\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"featured-article__meta\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<time class=\"featured-article__date\" datetime=\"2018-04-13\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tApril 13, 2018\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/time>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"featured-article__reading-time\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tlong read\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\n\t\t\n\t\t<li class=\"featured-article \">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<figure class=\"featured-article__image\">\n\t\t\t\t<img width=\"1200\" height=\"750\" src=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/02\/021616_lieberman_zink_0852_605.jpg?resize=1200%2C750\" class=\"attachment-large-landscape-desktop size-large-landscape-desktop\" alt=\"\" loading=\"lazy\" \/>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/figure>\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t<div class=\"featured-article__content\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t<a class=\"featured-article__category\" href=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/section\/science-technology\/\">\n\t\t\tScience &amp; Tech\t\t<\/a>\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\t<h3 class=\"featured-article__title wp-block-heading \"><a href=\"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2016\/03\/big-gains-in-better-chewing\/\">Big gains in better chewing<\/a><\/h3>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<div class=\"featured-article__meta\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<time class=\"featured-article__date\" datetime=\"2016-03-20\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarch 20, 2016\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/time>\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<span class=\"featured-article__reading-time\">\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5 min read\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/span>\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t<\/li>\n\n\t\t\t\t<\/ul>\n\t\t\t<\/div>\n\n\t<\/div>\r\n\n<p>Said Roach: \u201cThat led us to studying cricket bowlers and trying to understand what happens when you keep your arm straight, and why that diminishes your throwing ability. Eventually, we began to think that changes in the way the shoulder is oriented with regards to the rest of the body could change the way you generate force when you\u2019re throwing.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>To explore those physical changes, Roach and colleagues began by creating a complex model that incorporated current research about the biomechanics of throwing. Using that model, they were able to explore how morphological changes to the body \u2014 wider shoulders, arms that are higher or lower on the body, the ability to twist the upper body independently of the hips and legs, and the anatomy of the humerus \u2014 affect throwing performance.<\/p>\n<p>In addition to the modeling, Roach performed a series of real-world experiments in Lieberman\u2019s Skeletal Biology Lab using members of the Harvard baseball team and a host of braces designed to limit their movements.<\/p>\n\n<p>The idea, Roach explained, was that by restricting certain motions, the players would be forced into a more primitive condition, giving him the opportunity to see how different anatomical shifts contribute to the mechanics of modern throwing.<\/p>\n<p>Through a method known as inverse dynamics, Roach and colleagues were able to not only quantify how much restricting certain types of movements affected throwing performance, but were able to trace the effect to specific changes in the mechanics of each player.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cWe try to push these bits of anatomy back in time, if you will, to see how that affects performance,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThe important thing about our experiments is that they went beyond just being able to measure how the restriction affects someone\u2019s ability to throw fast and accurately; they allowed us to figure out the underlying physics. For example, when a thrower\u2019s velocity dropped by 10 percent, we could trace that change back to where it occurred.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cIn order to test our evolutionary hypotheses, we needed to link the changes we\u2019d seen in the fossil record to performance in terms of throwing,\u201d he continued. \u201cThis type of analysis allowed us to do that.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>When a pitcher\u2019s arm is cocked, \u201cwhat they\u2019re doing is stretching the ligaments and tendons that run across their shoulder,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThose tendons and ligaments get loaded up like the elastic bands on a slingshot, and late in the throw they release that energy rapidly and forcefully to rotate the upper arm with extraordinary speed and force.\u201d That rotation is the fastest motion the human body can produce. \u201cThe rotation of the humerus can reach up to 9,000 degrees per second, which generates an incredible amount of energy, causing you to rapidly extend your elbow, producing a very fast throw,\u201d Roach said.<\/p>\n<p>Among the evolutionary changes that proved key to generating powerful throwing motions, he said, was a twist in the bone of the upper arm and an expanded, mobile waist, which gave early humans the ability to store up and then release more of this elastic energy.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThe linchpin is really what\u2019s going on with the shoulder,\u201d Roach said. \u201cWhen you see the shift from a chimpanzee shoulder to a more relaxed humanlike shoulder, that enables this massive energy storage. Many of the evolutionary changes we studied, whether in the torso or the wrist, may predate <i>Homo erectus<\/i>, but when we see that final change in the shoulder, that\u2019s what brings it all together.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>While the findings help shed light on a critical phase of human evolution, they also offer touch on a hotly debated issue in sports: When it comes to young players, how much throwing is too much?<\/p>\n<p>\u201cIt\u2019s a tough question to answer,\u201d Roach said. \u201cThe real difference, from an evolutionary perspective, is the frequency with which some folks throw now. To successfully learn to throw and use that ability to hunt, our ancestors would need to throw often, but nothing like the 100 or more high-speed throws that some baseball pitchers throw now in the span of a couple of hours.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cI think it\u2019s really a case of what we evolved to do being superseded by what we\u2019re now asking athletes to do,\u201d he continued. \u201cAthletes are overusing this capability that gave early humans an evolutionary advantage, and they\u2019re overusing it to the point that injuries are common.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Ultimately, Lieberman said, the evidence points to one clear conclusion: The ability to throw with speed and accuracy is a uniquely human adaptation, one that played an immeasurably important role in human development.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cRecent research indicates that stone points \u2014 the oldest kind of spear point \u2014 are about 500,000 years old,\u201d he said. \u201cBut people have been killing animals for at least 2 million years, and eating animals for about 2.6 million years.<\/p>\n<p>\u201cThat means that for about 1.5 million years, when people hunted, they basically had nothing more lethal to throw than a pointed wooden stick,\u201d he continued. \u201cIf you want to kill something with that, you have to be able to throw that pretty hard, and you have to be accurate. Imagine how important it must have been to our ancestors to throw hard and fast.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n<\/div>\n"}},"jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":109621,"url":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2012\/05\/the-whys-of-religion-vs-evolution\/","url_meta":{"origin":141974,"position":0},"title":"The whys of religion vs. evolution","author":"harvardgazette","date":"May 8, 2012","format":false,"excerpt":"University of Chicago evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne says that dysfunction within American society promotes high levels of religious belief that in turn blocks general acceptance of evolutionary theories.","rel":"","context":"In &quot;Science &amp; Tech&quot;","block_context":{"text":"Science &amp; Tech","link":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/section\/science-technology\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2012\/05\/050212_coyne_170_605.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2012\/05\/050212_coyne_170_605.jpg?resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2012\/05\/050212_coyne_170_605.jpg?resize=525%2C300 1.5x"},"classes":[]},{"id":135241,"url":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2013\/04\/not-as-evolved-as-we-think\/","url_meta":{"origin":141974,"position":1},"title":"Not as evolved as we think","author":"harvardgazette","date":"April 11, 2013","format":false,"excerpt":"Lest you think you\u2019re at the top of the evolutionary heap, looking down your highly evolved nose at the earth\u2019s lesser creatures, Marlene Zuk has a message for you: When it comes to evolution, there is no high or low, no better or worse.","rel":"","context":"In &quot;Health&quot;","block_context":{"text":"Health","link":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/section\/health\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/04\/041013_paleo_605.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/04\/041013_paleo_605.jpg?resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2013\/04\/041013_paleo_605.jpg?resize=525%2C300 1.5x"},"classes":[]},{"id":313738,"url":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2020\/10\/nine-harvard-scientists-win-nih-grants\/","url_meta":{"origin":141974,"position":2},"title":"High-Risk, High-Reward grants for nine Harvard researchers","author":"harvardgazette","date":"October 8, 2020","format":false,"excerpt":"Harvard scientists receive prestigious grant funding through NIH program.","rel":"","context":"In &quot;Campus &amp; Community&quot;","block_context":{"text":"Campus &amp; Community","link":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/section\/campus-community\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"Microcentrifuge tubes in a rack.","src":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/nci-vol-9769-3001.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/nci-vol-9769-3001.jpg?resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/nci-vol-9769-3001.jpg?resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/nci-vol-9769-3001.jpg?resize=700%2C400 2x"},"classes":[]},{"id":354988,"url":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2023\/03\/evolution-aging-and-knee-osteoarthritis\/","url_meta":{"origin":141974,"position":3},"title":"Evolution hurts sometimes","author":"gazettebeckycoleman","date":"March 8, 2023","format":false,"excerpt":"The same skeletal changes that allowed humans to walk upright make us vulnerable to knee osteoarthritis as we age, human evolutionary biologist says.","rel":"","context":"In &quot;Health&quot;","block_context":{"text":"Health","link":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/section\/health\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"Terence D. Capellini.","src":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/030223_Evolution_074.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/030223_Evolution_074.jpg?resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/030223_Evolution_074.jpg?resize=525%2C300 1.5x, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/030223_Evolution_074.jpg?resize=700%2C400 2x"},"classes":[]},{"id":171780,"url":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2015\/06\/alone-with-evolution\/","url_meta":{"origin":141974,"position":4},"title":"Alone with evolution","author":"harvardgazette","date":"June 23, 2015","format":false,"excerpt":"Efforts by Harvard faculty to understand island evolution form the centerpiece of a new exhibition at the Harvard Museum of Natural History.","rel":"","context":"In &quot;Health&quot;","block_context":{"text":"Health","link":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/section\/health\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/06\/060115_islands_091_605_1.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/06\/060115_islands_091_605_1.jpg?resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2015\/06\/060115_islands_091_605_1.jpg?resize=525%2C300 1.5x"},"classes":[]},{"id":164789,"url":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/story\/2014\/12\/bacteria-churn-out-valuable-chemicals\/","url_meta":{"origin":141974,"position":5},"title":"Bacteria &#8216;factories&#8217; churn out valuable chemicals","author":"harvardgazette","date":"December 24, 2014","format":false,"excerpt":"A team of researchers led by Harvard geneticist George Church at the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering and Harvard Medical School has made big strides toward a future in which the predominant chemical factories of the world are colonies of genetically engineered bacteria.","rel":"","context":"In &quot;Health&quot;","block_context":{"text":"Health","link":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/section\/health\/"},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/12\/diverse_e_coli.jpg?resize=350%2C200","width":350,"height":200,"srcset":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/12\/diverse_e_coli.jpg?resize=350%2C200 1x, https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/2014\/12\/diverse_e_coli.jpg?resize=525%2C300 1.5x"},"classes":[]}],"jetpack_sharing_enabled":true,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/141974","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/105622744"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=141974"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/141974\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":280629,"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/141974\/revisions\/280629"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/142166"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=141974"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=141974"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=141974"},{"taxonomy":"format","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/gazette-formats?post=141974"},{"taxonomy":"series","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/news.harvard.edu\/gazette\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/series?post=141974"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}